![]() Chylomicrons also contribute to plasma FFA levels, especially when high-fat diets are consumed. FFAs are released into the blood through the action of hormone-sensitive lipase on triacylglycerol stores in adipose tissue. Nuclear throne stress free#Įndothelial biology is affected by circulating lipids such as triglycerides-rich particles, chylomicron resident time, lipoproteins, and free fatty acids (FFAs). ![]() In addition, the endothelium exerts multiple actions on the expression of several pro-inflammatory genes, including those encoding adhesion molecules, chemokines, and other soluble cytokines of the endothelium. In addition, endothelial cells produce various factors regulating cellular adhesion, platelet aggregation response, smooth muscle cell proliferation, and inflammation. The inner layer of endothelium that comprises endothelial cells allows free blood flow and its cellular components. The endothelium has a major function in regulating vascular tone, controlling blood flow, and blood fluidity and inflammatory responses. Located at the interface between the circulation and the vessel wall, the endothelium reacts by synthesizing and releasing vasoactive substances with anti-thrombotic, vasodilating, and anti-atherogenic properties to maintain vascular homeostasis. Therefore, the delicate balance between these endothelium-secreted molecules is critically required for the appropriate functioning of the endothelium. Although dysregulated NO production is the main regulator of endothelium dysfunction, PGI 2 and bradykinin also participate in regulating endothelium function. Endothelium-secreted compounds such as angiotensin II (Ang II), endothelin-1 (ET-1), thromboxane(Tx) A 2, and prostaglandin (PG) H 2 involve in vasoconstriction, whereas nitric oxide (NO), prostacyclin (PGI 2), bradykinin, and hyperpolarizing factor involve in vasodilation thus maintain a balance between the vasoconstriction and vasodilation. Endothelial cells can affect various pathophysiological properties by producing different molecules. The presence of atherosclerosis is a prevalent characteristic in cardiovascular disease (CVD), and that endothelial dysfunction is thought to be one of the early steps in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Thus, impairment of the endothelial functions plays deleterious roles in developing various disorders/diseases, including inflammatory angiitis syndrome, thrombotic embolism, disseminated intravascular coagulation disorder, neovascularization, tumor progression, and diabetic retinopathy. ![]() In addition, the endothelium regulates normal functioning in the circulatory system by balancing vasodilation and vasoconstriction between thrombosis and hemostasis by modulating the several responses and signals. Endothelial cells are responsible for a wide range of critical functions, including maintaining vascular tone, fluidity of blood, blood flow, and permeability of endothelium. Endothelial cells play various roles in the maintenance of vascularity of endothelium. ![]() The endothelium, which consists of a monolayer of endothelial cells, has a thickness of ≤ 1 μm and covers a total surface area of 4000 -7000 m 2. The tightly regulated vascular endothelium forms a vast interface between the flowing blood and neighboring tissues. This review presents details as to how endothelium is affected by FFAs involving several metabolic pathways. Therefore, modulation of FFA-mediated pathways involved in endothelial dysfunction may prevent the complications associated with CVD risk. FFA-mediated endothelial dysfunction involves several mechanisms, including dysregulated production of nitric oxide and cytokines, metaflammation, oxidative stress, inflammation, activation of the renin-angiotensin system, and apoptosis. ![]() Because of the multi-dimensional roles of plasma FFAs in mediating endothelial dysfunction, increased FFA level is now considered an essential link in the onset of endothelial dysfunction in CVD. Increased plasma-free fatty acids (FFAs) levels are associated with the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Plasma lipids can interact with endothelium via different mechanisms and produce different phenotypes. The endothelium acts as the barrier that prevents circulating lipids such as lipoproteins and fatty acids into the arterial wall it also regulates normal functioning in the circulatory system by balancing vasodilation and vasoconstriction, modulating the several responses and signals. ![]()
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